Celebrating Black Veterans

1.) Before Rosa Parks: Black veteran shot to death for refusing to sit in segregated section of bus in Durham

In 1944, Spicely, stationed at Camp Butner, boarded a Durham city bus operated by Duke Power Company. Spicely refused to sit in a segregated section of the bus and got off the bus at the intersection of West Club Boulevard and what is now Berkeley Street.

The white driver, Herman Lee Council, chased Spicely off the bus and shot him twice at close range in front of other passengers.

SOURCE : https://www.wral.com/amp/21161878/


2.) US military
US army overturns 1917 convictions of 110 Black soldiers charged with mutiny

Officials announced ceremony honoring the Buffalo Soldiers, 19 of whom were executed, to atone for Jim Crow-era racism

The US army is overturning the convictions of 110 Black soldiers – 19 of whom were executed – for a mutiny at a Houston military camp a century ago, an effort to atone for imposing harsh punishments linked to Jim Crow-era racism.

US army officials announced the historic reversal on Monday during a ceremony posthumously honoring the regiment known as the Buffalo Soldiers, who had been sent to Houston in 1917, during the first world war, to guard a military training facility.

Clashes arose between the regiment and white police officers and civilians and 19 people were killed.

The South Texas College of Law first requested the army look into the cases in October 2020 and again in December 2021. The army then received clemency petitions from retired general officers on behalf of the 110 soldiers.

SOURCE : https://amp.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/nov/14/us-army-buffalo-soldiers-mutiny-1917-overturned-jim-crow



3.) How the Police Shooting of a Black Soldier Triggered the 1943 Harlem Riots

When a rumor catapulted into an explosion of frustration and rage, a fabled Black neighborhood in Manhattan turned into a battleground.

SOURCE : https://www.history.com/news/harlem-riot-police-1943


4.) The Second Confiscation and Militia Act (1862)

The Second Confiscation and Militia Act of July 17, 1862, was the first step toward the enlistment of African Americans in the Union Army. It did not explicitly invite Black people to join the fight, but it did authorize the president “to employ as many persons of African descent as he may deem necessary and proper for the suppression of this rebellion…in such manner as he may judge best for the public welfare.”

Some Black people took this as their cue to begin forming infantry units of their own. African Americans from New Orleans formed three National Guard units: the First, Second and Third Louisiana Native Guard. (These became the 73rd, 74th and 75th United States Colored Infantry.) The First Kansas Colored Infantry (later the 79th United States Colored Infantry) fought in the October 1862 skirmish at Island Mound, Missouri. And the First South Carolina Infantry, African Descent (later the 33rd United States Colored Infantry) went on its first expedition in November 1862. These unofficial regiments were officially mustered into service in January 1863.

SOURCE : https://www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/black-civil-war-soldiers#confederate-threats

tps://youtu.be/T0cgc3p--VU?si=kIKwAcOZroLwN-Ps


https://youtu.be/I4dBQ9mKu-g


1.) Veterans React to SCOTUS’ Affirmative Action Decision: ‘A Slap In the Face’

SOURCE : https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-features/supreme-court-affirmative-action-military-veterans-react [login to see] /amp/



2.) Military Academies Exempted from Supreme Court Ruling Ending Affirmative Action

However, the Court specifically exempted the military academies from its decision on race-based affirmative action. The majority opinion, written by Chief Justice John Roberts, said in a footnote that this policy would not impact how military service academies approached admissions, citing "distinct interests" those institutions have.

"The special nature of military academies and their interests was addressed in an important amicus brief filed in Grutter v. Bollinger almost 20 years ago," said Lawrence Friedman, JD, professor of law at New England Law Boston. "The Supreme Court's decision tacitly acknowledges that."

The Supreme Court's decision allows the academies to continue race-conscious admissions policies that have historically been justified by the need for a diverse officer corps. As of 2022 the Department of Defense’s Office of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion assessed that while 19% of the military’s enlisted personnel were Black, only 8% of its officers were Black.

"The military knows that if you don't get a diverse set of student leaders into commissioning sources, you don't get diverse officer leadership," said Daniel Walker, an Air Force Academy alum and former F-22 pilot. Currently a JD candidate at Harvard Law School, and a member of the Black Veterans Project, Walker said he believed that less diversity in leadership led to a weaker overall force.

Despite the service academy carve-out, the court's decision will still likely impact the officer corps: Military academies are not the only source for commissioning officers. The Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) commissions over half of the military's officers in a particular year, according to a recent Government Accountability Office report.

Additionally, another quarter of the nation's officers commission via Officer Candidate School (OCS) -- some of whom have no prior qualification beyond a bachelor's degree from an accredited college.

SOURCE : https://www.military.com/daily-news/2023/06/29/military-academies-exempted-supreme-court-ruling-ending-affirmative-action.html/amp


3.) Your Military

Service academies exempt from Supreme Court affirmative action ruling

Thursday, Jun 29 2023

Chief Justice John Roberts wrote in a footnote in the majority opinion, “No military academy is a party to these cases, however, and none of the courts below addressed the propriety of race-based admissions systems in that context.”

“This opinion also does not address the issue, in light of the potentially distinct interests that military academies may present.”

SOURCE : https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your-military/2023/06/29/service-academies-exempt-from-supreme-court-affirmative-action-ruling/


4.) SUPREME COURT

Published June 30, 2023 5:54pm EDT

Footnote in Supreme Court’s affirmative action ruling excludes military academies

One expert told Fox News Digital the court 'punted' on the issue and will likely address it at a later date
By Andrew Mark Miller | Fox News

The Supreme Court’s decision Thursday striking down affirmative action in the college admission process included language that will exclude military academies from the ruling.

The majority opinion from Justice John Roberts came with a footnote explaining that military academies are not subject to the ruling because they were not involved in the prior cases that were eventually heard in the Supreme Court.

"The United States as amicus curiae contends that race-based admissions programs further compelling interests at our Nation’s military academies," the footnote said.

"No military academy is a party to these cases, however, and none of the courts below addressed the propriety of race-based admissions systems in that context. This opinion also does not address the issue, in light of the potentially distinct interests that military academies may present."

SOURCE : https://www.foxnews.com/politics/footnote-supreme-courts-affirmative-action-ruling-excludes-military-academies.amp

——-
——-

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
Syllabus
STUDENTS FOR FAIR ADMISSIONS, INC. v.
PRESIDENT AND FELLOWS OF HARVARD COLLEGE
CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR
THE FIRST CIRCUIT
No. 20–1199. Argued October 31, 2022—Decided June 29, 2023*

Harvard College and the University of North Carolina (UNC) are two of
the oldest institutions of higher learning in the United States.

Every year, tens of thousands of students apply to each school; many fewer are admitted. Both Harvard and UNC employ a highly selective ad-missions process to make their decisions. Admission to each school can
depend on a student’s grades, recommendation letters, or extracurric-ular involvement. It can also depend on their race.

The question pre-sented is whether the admissions systems used by Harvard College and UNC are lawful under the Equal Protection Clause of the Four-
teenth Amendment.

SOURCE : https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/22pdf/20-1199_hgdj.pdf

V1 : https://youtu.be/ppjipVpGCAU?si=JnVJxaV3KsW1vvqx


V2 : https://youtu.be/4KKKihonyZg?si=od7UWLduRucqKi8C


1.) African Americans Fought for Freedom at Home and Abroad during World War II

In the face of racism and segregation, Black men and women served in every branch of the armed services during World War II.

SOURCE : https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/african-americans-fought-freedom-home-and-abroad-during-world-war-ii#:~:text=The%20Army%2C%20Navy%2C%20and%20Marine,South%20to%20command%20Black%20infantrymen.



2.) African American Service and Racial Integration in the U.S. Military

Though full integration of the U.S. military was not established until the middle of the 20th century, African Americans have served in American conflicts since before the United States was a free nation. Over time, the presence of black soldiers, sailors, regiments, and squadrons would grow until the value and importance of African American servicemen and women could no longer be ignored by leaders bent on resisting change.

Formal African American service in the American military dates from the Revolutionary War. Many freemen and some slaves already served in Northern colonial militias to protect their homes during conflicts with indigenous tribes. The service numbers rose in 1770 in response to the death of Crispus Attucks, an African American believed to be the first casualty at the Boston Massacre. While George Washington was initially reluctant to recruit black soldiers, military necessity later made him relent.

The most prominent African American soldiers in the American Revolution served in the 1st Rhode Island Regiment, which recruited enough black and Native American soldiers to form more than half of its 225-man total. It was the only regiment in the Continental Army to have segregated units. The 1st Rhode Island Regiment had its most noteworthy action protecting the Colonial withdrawal from Aquidneck Island during the Battle of Rhode Island (August 1778).

Southern colonies, fearing that arming slaves would lead to revolts, opposed the use of slaves in Patriot militia, though some would serve in isolated instances. The British, however, recruited heavily from the South, promising freedom to any slave who fought for the Loyalist cause. Consequently, while an estimated 9,000 black soldiers and sailors fought for the Continental Army, nearly 20,000 fought for the British.

After the Revolutionary War, African Americans were pushed out of military service. The Federal Militia Acts of 1792 specifically prohibited black service in the U.S. Army. As a result, few African Americans participated on the side of the United States during the War of 1812. Only Louisiana was allowed to have separate black militia units in that conflict. Due to a manpower shortage, the U.S. Navy accepted free black recruits in that conflict, making up 15% to 20% of Navy manpower. Many slaves also served in the British Navy in anticipation of gaining their freedom.

SOURCE : https://www.army.mil/article-amp/243604/african_american_service_and_racial_integration_in_the_u_s_military

#neverforget
#Thisain’t1919
#DoBetter


V1 : https://youtu.be/dQ-S7qH13bg?si=004Ut_WiOTFuLeuU


V2 : https://youtu.be/Q_1Zwm8N_vo?si=-X_VzrX2x3SxwrZF


V3 : https://youtu.be/8qI2cUkhGEY?si=Xag7qREGcjODTrPI


I.) Red Summer
The Race Riots of 1919

American servicemen returned from the First World War only to find a new type of violent conflict waiting for them at home. An outbreak of racial violence known as the “Red Summer” occurred in 1919, an event that affected at least 26 cities across the United States.

SOURCE : https://www.theworldwar.org/learn/about-wwi/red-summer



II.) Racial Violence and the Red Summer

The Red Summer was a pattern of white-on-black violence that occurred in 1919 throughout the United States. The post World War I period was marked by a spike in racial violence, much of it directed toward African American veterans returning from Europe, where they were often treated much better there than by white Americans, despite their brave service to the country.

* The bloodiest incident occurred in Elaine, Arkansas, where it is estimated that over 100 African Americans were killed

* The presence of racial hostility in the North was partly a reaction of Northern whites to the large influx of African Americans into Northern cities during the Great Migration, though this hostility did not prevent large numbers of African Americans from heading North.

SOURCE : https://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/wwi/red-summer


III.) Red Summer of 1919: How Black WWI Vets Fought Back Against Racist Mobs

When dozens of brutal race riots erupted across the U.S. in the wake of World War I and the Great Migration, black veterans stepped up to defend their communities against white violence.

SOURCE : https://www.history.com/news/red-summer-1919-riots-chicago-dc-great-migration


BONUS :

The Deacons for Defense and Justice

The Deacons for Defense and Justice was founded in 1964 in Jonesboro, Louisiana to protect civil rights activists from the Ku Klux Klan. The organization was made up of black veterans from World War II, who believed in armed self-defense. About twenty chapters were created throughout Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama.

The Deacons for Defense provided protection for people participating in protest marches in Mississippi in 1966, including the March Against Fear. Many of the records at the National Archives involving the Deacons for Defense are from the FBI Case Files on Civil Unrest.

SOURCE : https://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/black-power/deacons

1.) LIBRARY
LIBRARY
OF CONGRESS
RESEARCH GUIDES

American Minority Groups in the Vietnam War: A Resource
Guide

American minority groups served in all branches of the military during the Vietnam War. This guide comprises Library of Congress digital resources and print materials related to the topic.

SOURCE : https://guides.loc.gov/racial-ethnic-and-religious-minorities-in-the-vietnam-war


2.) Serving without 'equal opportunity': Vietnam veterans faced racism at home and abroad

During the civil rights movement, Ohio veterans Joseph Jennings and Edward Morast risked their lives for a country that denied them basic freedoms.

SOURCE : https://www.dispatch.com/in-depth/news/2020/12/03/black-vietnam-veterans-systemic-racism-military/ [login to see] /

V1 : https://youtu.be/ppjipVpGCAU?si=JnVJxaV3KsW1vvqx


V2 : https://youtu.be/4KKKihonyZg?si=od7UWLduRucqKi8C


1.) African Americans Fought for Freedom at Home and Abroad during World War II

In the face of racism and segregation, Black men and women served in every branch of the armed services during World War II.

SOURCE : https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/african-americans-fought-freedom-home-and-abroad-during-world-war-ii#:~:text=The%20Army%2C%20Navy%2C%20and%20Marine,South%20to%20command%20Black%20infantrymen.



2.) African American Service and Racial Integration in the U.S. Military

Though full integration of the U.S. military was not established until the middle of the 20th century, African Americans have served in American conflicts since before the United States was a free nation. Over time, the presence of black soldiers, sailors, regiments, and squadrons would grow until the value and importance of African American servicemen and women could no longer be ignored by leaders bent on resisting change.

Formal African American service in the American military dates from the Revolutionary War. Many freemen and some slaves already served in Northern colonial militias to protect their homes during conflicts with indigenous tribes. The service numbers rose in 1770 in response to the death of Crispus Attucks, an African American believed to be the first casualty at the Boston Massacre. While George Washington was initially reluctant to recruit black soldiers, military necessity later made him relent.

The most prominent African American soldiers in the American Revolution served in the 1st Rhode Island Regiment, which recruited enough black and Native American soldiers to form more than half of its 225-man total. It was the only regiment in the Continental Army to have segregated units. The 1st Rhode Island Regiment had its most noteworthy action protecting the Colonial withdrawal from Aquidneck Island during the Battle of Rhode Island (August 1778).

Southern colonies, fearing that arming slaves would lead to revolts, opposed the use of slaves in Patriot militia, though some would serve in isolated instances. The British, however, recruited heavily from the South, promising freedom to any slave who fought for the Loyalist cause. Consequently, while an estimated 9,000 black soldiers and sailors fought for the Continental Army, nearly 20,000 fought for the British.

After the Revolutionary War, African Americans were pushed out of military service. The Federal Militia Acts of 1792 specifically prohibited black service in the U.S. Army. As a result, few African Americans participated on the side of the United States during the War of 1812. Only Louisiana was allowed to have separate black militia units in that conflict. Due to a manpower shortage, the U.S. Navy accepted free black recruits in that conflict, making up 15% to 20% of Navy manpower. Many slaves also served in the British Navy in anticipation of gaining their freedom.

SOURCE : https://www.army.mil/article-amp/243604/african_american_service_and_racial_integration_in_the_u_s_military