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On April 9, 1413, Henry V was crowned King of England. From the article:
"Henry V of England
Henry V of England ruled as king from 1413 to 1422 CE. Succeeding his father Henry IV of England (r. 1399-1413 CE), Prince Henry established himself as a fine military leader in battles against English and Welsh rebels in the first decade of the 1400s CE. As king, Henry masterminded a famous victory against the French at the Battle of Agincourt in October 1415 CE, went on to capture Normandy and Paris, and was even nominated as heir to the French throne. Henry’s spectacular reign then came to a sudden and unexpected end when he died, probably of dysentery in August 1422 CE while on campaign in France; he was succeeded by his son Henry VI of England (r. 1422-1461 & 1470-1471 CE).
Family & Early Life
Henry was born on 16 September 1387 CE at Monmouth Castle, the son of Henry IV of England, the first of the kings of the House of Lancaster, and Mary of Bohun (b. c. 1369 CE). The ousting of Richard II of England (r. 1377-1399 CE) by Henry IV in 1399 CE (when he was known as Henry Bolingbroke) and the murder of the ex-king in Pontefract Castle in 1400 CE would come back to haunt the House of Lancaster but for now, Prince Henry had no doubts about his role in the world: to one day rule England and then to conquer France.
Henry wanted to take a more militaristic approach with England's great rival France & resume in earnest the on-off conflict of the Hundred Years’ War.
Henry, often called Henry of Monmouth prior to his accession, was a very pious individual and developed a taste for an ascetic lifestyle as king, but in his youth, he was known for his partying. The young Henry spent time at Richard’s court - even when his father was exiled - and he also learnt about arms and warfare from his guardian, the celebrated medieval knight Sir Henry ‘Hotspur’ Percy (1364-1403 CE). Indeed, the prince learnt rather too well from the old master, and when the ‘Hotspur’ turned against the king, he was killed at the Battle of Shrewsbury in July 1403 CE in which the 16-year-old Henry fought with aplomb, although he received a facial wound for his trouble.
Prince Henry led the king’s army which finally quashed the Welsh rebellion led by Owain Glyn Dwr (b. c. 1359 CE). Perhaps Henry had been especially miffed that Owain had declared himself the Prince of Wales, which as the English king’s eldest son, was rightfully Henry’s title. In 1409 CE the rebel stronghold at Harlech Castle was captured and Owain Glyn Dwr retreated to the mountains, never to be seen again. The prince next led an army to France to exploit the anarchy there following the descent into madness of King Charles VI of France (r. 1380-1422 CE), but the expedition came to nothing. Still, the prince was outshining his father and there developed some friction between the two, especially over the Prince’s desire to take a more militaristic approach with their great rival France and resume in earnest the on-off conflict that is known to history as the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453 CE).
Succession
Henry IV died of illness on 20 March 1413 CE. The king’s health had been in decline since 1406 CE, and Prince Henry had already taken over some of the king’s duties. Prince Henry, aged just 25, was crowned Henry V on 9 April 1413 CE in Westminster Abbey while a blizzard raged outside. The new king took his new responsibility seriously and banished all his old rollicking and roistering comrades from his presence, forbidding any of them to come within 10 miles (16 km) of his person. The king also sported what seems to modern eyes an unusual haircut but this was in the style of soldiers and indicated the king meant business when he said to his dying father that he would defend his crown with his sword.
The king would need his sword sooner than he thought when he had to deal with a murder plot in 1415 CE, known to history as the ‘Southampton Plot’. The plan was to put Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March and great-great-grandson of Edward III of England (r. 1327-1377 CE) on the throne. The conspirators were led by Sir Thomas Grey; Henry, Lord Scrope of Masham; and the Earl of Cambridge, who was the grandson of Edward III. All three were executed in August 1415 CE after Mortimer had himself informed the king of the plot.
Henry was not merely a warrior king, though, and during his reign he encouraged the use of the English language in official documents and literature as opposed to the previously dominant French language. Another area of concern to the king was the medieval Church and the heresy of the ‘Lollards’. These heretics believed that anyone could pray in private and so the Church as an institution need not be the bridge between God and humanity. Further, one of the Lollard exponents, the theologian John Wycliffe (c. 1325-1384 CE), called for a redistribution of the Church’s wealth, an idea taken up by members of the dangerous Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 CE. By persecuting the Lollards, putting down riotous Lollard demonstrations in January 1414 CE, and even imprisoning for heresy his own friend Sir John Oldcastle, Henry thus acquired the full support of the Church, an indispensable ally when it came to gathering the cash needed for his planned military campaigns.
Hundred Years’ War
The Hundred Years’ War between England and France had started remarkably well for the English during the reign of Edward III. Aided by his son Edward the Black Prince (1330-1376 CE), great victories were won at Crécy in 1346 and Poitiers in 1356 CE. However, Charles V of France, aka Charles the Wise (r. 1364-1380 CE), steadily regained the initiative and by 1375 CE the only lands left in France belonging to the English Crown were Calais and a thin slice of Gascony. Now, though, with the demise of Charles VI, the French nobles were divided and the country in chaos. In addition, the longbows used by English armies were still the most devastating weapon the medieval battlefield had yet witnessed. Henry IV and his son had disagreed over policy towards France and which faction to back: those led by the Duke of Burgundy (the Burgundians) or the supporters of the Duke of Orleans (the Armagnacs). Henry V was now keen to make good on his failed expedition in France when a prince and to take a much more decisive course of action against the old enemy.
With the country behind him, Henry was ready to pursue his claim that he was also the rightful king of France.
With French pirates running riot in the English Channel and the chance of lands and booty in the event of an invasion of a teetering France, the majority of English barons and the Parliament were enthusiastic for action. Another helpful factor was the stability of the Welsh and Scottish borders. In order to win the support of any waverers, Henry reinstated the estates of those lords his father had been against and, in a show of conciliation with the wrongs of the past, had the body of Richard II re-buried in Westminster Abbey (from Kings Langley). With the country behind him, Henry was ready to pursue the claim that had started with Henry’s great-grandfather, Edward III, the nephew of Charles IV of France (r. 1322-1328 CE): the English king was also the rightful king of France. Even the royal coat of arms still showed the three lions of England and the fleur-de-lis of France.
Agincourt
To give himself time to assemble funds and his army, Henry made diplomatic advances towards both of the French factions in 1415 CE. Nothing came of these discussions except, as the story goes, the son and heir of Charles VI, the Dauphin (another Charles), sent the young Henry a box of tennis balls with a note he should concentrate on sports rather than war. Henry showed his clear intent when, in mid-August, he invaded Normandy with an army of around 10,000 men and captured the port of Harfleur after a gruelling five-week siege. With winter around the corner and his force already depleted to 6,000-7,000 men by the fighting and a wave of dysentery, Henry decided to withdraw to English-held Calais and regroup.
The French had not been wasting time during this first part of the invasion and the Constable of France, Charles d’Albert, assembled an army of around 20,000 men to meet the enemy and overwhelm them with sheer numbers. The two armies met on Saint Crispin's day, 25 October 1415 CE near the village of Agincourt. The ground was in a shocking state for a battle and presented a field of mud for both sides. The English had lighter armour than their French counterparts and this proved very useful in the battle conditions. Yet again, though, it was the longbow that proved decisive as the English archers fired at the enemy from three sides. French knights were knocked off their horses and had their armour pierced by the powerful English arrows.
The French losses were astonishing: around 7,000 men to the English dead of perhaps as few as 500. The figures were so high for the French because Henry had ordered the execution of prisoners when a contingent of the enemy attacked the English baggage train in the rear and so the king feared the fighting might start anew. Amongst the fallen were most of the French nobility, including several dukes and counts, a situation which meant there was limited resistance to Henry’s next moves in terms of large field armies clashing. The king had, once again, led his troops from the front and won, even if he had received a heavy bash to his helmet (which now hangs over his tomb in Westminster Abbey). The Duke of Orleans was captured at Agincourt and he eventually found himself a prisoner in the Tower of London for the start of his 25 years of confinement in England.
King-to-be of France
Between 1417 and 1419 CE Henry conquered Normandy by persistent siege warfare of strategically important cities and fortifications. Caen, for example, was taken in 1417 CE after a siege where no quarter was given by either side. Henry forbade his men from plundering but, despite once hanging an archer for stealing a small box from a church, this was difficult to always enforce. The king famously captured Rouen, the Norman capital, in January 1419 CE after a siege where the king’s artillery batteries were used and a ruthless Henry ordered dead animals thrown into any wells which eventually caused so much disease in the town that it was forced to capitulate. Consequently, Normandy was now in Henry’s control and land was parcelled out to loyal followers.
At the end of 1419 CE Henry set his sights on Paris. Supporters of the Duke of Burgundy, after the duke’s father was murdered by a French rival, crucially gave their backing to Henry’s claim to be ruler of France as well as England. This arrangement was sealed in May 1420 CE with the Treaty of Troyes. According to this treaty, Henry would be made the king of France following the death of Charles VI. The new regime would be tied to the old via the marriage of the English king to Charles’ daughter Catherine of Valois (l. 1401 - c. 1437 CE). Finally, Henry had to promise he would continue fighting against the Burgundian's number one enemy: the now disinherited Dauphin Charles.
On 2 June 1420 CE in Troyes Cathedral, Henry V did indeed marry Catherine and the war was resumed against the Dauphin. Henry was at the peak of his powers, the most potent ruler in Western Europe. In 1421 CE, the royal couple returned to England where they were welcomed by a show of pageantry and choirs in the streets of London and Catherine had her coronation ceremony.
On 6 December 1421 CE at Windsor Castle Henry’s only child was born, another Henry. The wheel of fortune was already turning for the English king, though. In March 1421 CE, the English lost at the Battle of Baugé and Henry’s own brother, Thomas, Duke of Clarence was killed. Henry headed back to France to resume the war and so he never saw his son born or at any time thereafter. The king enjoyed one more success on 11 May 1422 CE, capturing Meaux after an eight-month siege. Henry’s career had been glittering, but it was also to be short.
Death & Successor
Henry died, probably of dysentery (although it may have been bowel cancer), aged 35, on 31 August 1422 CE at Bois de Vincennes in France. The English king had missed the chance to become the king of France by less than two months; Charles VI died on 21 October 1422 CE. Henry’s body was returned to England and buried at Westminster Abbey, and he was succeeded by his infant son, crowned Henry VI in November 1429 CE, again in Westminster Abbey. The infant’s regents had already been appointed by his father: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (l. 1390-1447 CE) for England and John, Duke of Bedford (l. 1389-1435 CE) for France, both were brothers of Henry V.
Henry VI’s reign turned out to be long, despite an interruption during the 1460s CE, but he could not stop a grand French revival which included the heroic efforts of Joan of Arc (c. 1412-1431 CE) and the crowning of the Dauphin as King Charles VII of France (r. 1422-1461 CE). Henry had continued to press a claim for the French throne, eventually being crowned as such in the cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris in December 1431 CE, although loyalists to Charles VII disputed his right to do so. Henry VI, who suffered from bouts of insanity, met a sticky end, murdered in the Tower of London in May 1471 CE as the two houses of Lancaster and York battled for the throne in what later became known as the Wars of the Roses (1455-1487 CE).
Henry V’s legacy might have crumbled quicker than he hoped, but he has at least gone down in history as one of England’s great kings, a view which benefitted greatly from his heroic treatment by William Shakespeare (1564-1616 CE) in his play Henry V (1599 CE), which contains the following stirring lines, spoken by Henry to his army just before the battle of Agincourt:
And Crispin Crispian shall ne’er go by
From this day to the ending of the world
But we in it shall be remembered,
We few, we happy few, we band of brothers.
For he today that sheds his blood with me
Shall be my brother; but he ne’er so vile,
This day shall gentle his condition.
And gentlemen in England now abed
Shall think themselves accursed they were not here,
And hold their manhoods cheap while any speaks
That fought with us upon Saint Crispin’s day.
(Act 4, Scene 3)"
"Henry V of England
Henry V of England ruled as king from 1413 to 1422 CE. Succeeding his father Henry IV of England (r. 1399-1413 CE), Prince Henry established himself as a fine military leader in battles against English and Welsh rebels in the first decade of the 1400s CE. As king, Henry masterminded a famous victory against the French at the Battle of Agincourt in October 1415 CE, went on to capture Normandy and Paris, and was even nominated as heir to the French throne. Henry’s spectacular reign then came to a sudden and unexpected end when he died, probably of dysentery in August 1422 CE while on campaign in France; he was succeeded by his son Henry VI of England (r. 1422-1461 & 1470-1471 CE).
Family & Early Life
Henry was born on 16 September 1387 CE at Monmouth Castle, the son of Henry IV of England, the first of the kings of the House of Lancaster, and Mary of Bohun (b. c. 1369 CE). The ousting of Richard II of England (r. 1377-1399 CE) by Henry IV in 1399 CE (when he was known as Henry Bolingbroke) and the murder of the ex-king in Pontefract Castle in 1400 CE would come back to haunt the House of Lancaster but for now, Prince Henry had no doubts about his role in the world: to one day rule England and then to conquer France.
Henry wanted to take a more militaristic approach with England's great rival France & resume in earnest the on-off conflict of the Hundred Years’ War.
Henry, often called Henry of Monmouth prior to his accession, was a very pious individual and developed a taste for an ascetic lifestyle as king, but in his youth, he was known for his partying. The young Henry spent time at Richard’s court - even when his father was exiled - and he also learnt about arms and warfare from his guardian, the celebrated medieval knight Sir Henry ‘Hotspur’ Percy (1364-1403 CE). Indeed, the prince learnt rather too well from the old master, and when the ‘Hotspur’ turned against the king, he was killed at the Battle of Shrewsbury in July 1403 CE in which the 16-year-old Henry fought with aplomb, although he received a facial wound for his trouble.
Prince Henry led the king’s army which finally quashed the Welsh rebellion led by Owain Glyn Dwr (b. c. 1359 CE). Perhaps Henry had been especially miffed that Owain had declared himself the Prince of Wales, which as the English king’s eldest son, was rightfully Henry’s title. In 1409 CE the rebel stronghold at Harlech Castle was captured and Owain Glyn Dwr retreated to the mountains, never to be seen again. The prince next led an army to France to exploit the anarchy there following the descent into madness of King Charles VI of France (r. 1380-1422 CE), but the expedition came to nothing. Still, the prince was outshining his father and there developed some friction between the two, especially over the Prince’s desire to take a more militaristic approach with their great rival France and resume in earnest the on-off conflict that is known to history as the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453 CE).
Succession
Henry IV died of illness on 20 March 1413 CE. The king’s health had been in decline since 1406 CE, and Prince Henry had already taken over some of the king’s duties. Prince Henry, aged just 25, was crowned Henry V on 9 April 1413 CE in Westminster Abbey while a blizzard raged outside. The new king took his new responsibility seriously and banished all his old rollicking and roistering comrades from his presence, forbidding any of them to come within 10 miles (16 km) of his person. The king also sported what seems to modern eyes an unusual haircut but this was in the style of soldiers and indicated the king meant business when he said to his dying father that he would defend his crown with his sword.
The king would need his sword sooner than he thought when he had to deal with a murder plot in 1415 CE, known to history as the ‘Southampton Plot’. The plan was to put Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March and great-great-grandson of Edward III of England (r. 1327-1377 CE) on the throne. The conspirators were led by Sir Thomas Grey; Henry, Lord Scrope of Masham; and the Earl of Cambridge, who was the grandson of Edward III. All three were executed in August 1415 CE after Mortimer had himself informed the king of the plot.
Henry was not merely a warrior king, though, and during his reign he encouraged the use of the English language in official documents and literature as opposed to the previously dominant French language. Another area of concern to the king was the medieval Church and the heresy of the ‘Lollards’. These heretics believed that anyone could pray in private and so the Church as an institution need not be the bridge between God and humanity. Further, one of the Lollard exponents, the theologian John Wycliffe (c. 1325-1384 CE), called for a redistribution of the Church’s wealth, an idea taken up by members of the dangerous Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 CE. By persecuting the Lollards, putting down riotous Lollard demonstrations in January 1414 CE, and even imprisoning for heresy his own friend Sir John Oldcastle, Henry thus acquired the full support of the Church, an indispensable ally when it came to gathering the cash needed for his planned military campaigns.
Hundred Years’ War
The Hundred Years’ War between England and France had started remarkably well for the English during the reign of Edward III. Aided by his son Edward the Black Prince (1330-1376 CE), great victories were won at Crécy in 1346 and Poitiers in 1356 CE. However, Charles V of France, aka Charles the Wise (r. 1364-1380 CE), steadily regained the initiative and by 1375 CE the only lands left in France belonging to the English Crown were Calais and a thin slice of Gascony. Now, though, with the demise of Charles VI, the French nobles were divided and the country in chaos. In addition, the longbows used by English armies were still the most devastating weapon the medieval battlefield had yet witnessed. Henry IV and his son had disagreed over policy towards France and which faction to back: those led by the Duke of Burgundy (the Burgundians) or the supporters of the Duke of Orleans (the Armagnacs). Henry V was now keen to make good on his failed expedition in France when a prince and to take a much more decisive course of action against the old enemy.
With the country behind him, Henry was ready to pursue his claim that he was also the rightful king of France.
With French pirates running riot in the English Channel and the chance of lands and booty in the event of an invasion of a teetering France, the majority of English barons and the Parliament were enthusiastic for action. Another helpful factor was the stability of the Welsh and Scottish borders. In order to win the support of any waverers, Henry reinstated the estates of those lords his father had been against and, in a show of conciliation with the wrongs of the past, had the body of Richard II re-buried in Westminster Abbey (from Kings Langley). With the country behind him, Henry was ready to pursue the claim that had started with Henry’s great-grandfather, Edward III, the nephew of Charles IV of France (r. 1322-1328 CE): the English king was also the rightful king of France. Even the royal coat of arms still showed the three lions of England and the fleur-de-lis of France.
Agincourt
To give himself time to assemble funds and his army, Henry made diplomatic advances towards both of the French factions in 1415 CE. Nothing came of these discussions except, as the story goes, the son and heir of Charles VI, the Dauphin (another Charles), sent the young Henry a box of tennis balls with a note he should concentrate on sports rather than war. Henry showed his clear intent when, in mid-August, he invaded Normandy with an army of around 10,000 men and captured the port of Harfleur after a gruelling five-week siege. With winter around the corner and his force already depleted to 6,000-7,000 men by the fighting and a wave of dysentery, Henry decided to withdraw to English-held Calais and regroup.
The French had not been wasting time during this first part of the invasion and the Constable of France, Charles d’Albert, assembled an army of around 20,000 men to meet the enemy and overwhelm them with sheer numbers. The two armies met on Saint Crispin's day, 25 October 1415 CE near the village of Agincourt. The ground was in a shocking state for a battle and presented a field of mud for both sides. The English had lighter armour than their French counterparts and this proved very useful in the battle conditions. Yet again, though, it was the longbow that proved decisive as the English archers fired at the enemy from three sides. French knights were knocked off their horses and had their armour pierced by the powerful English arrows.
The French losses were astonishing: around 7,000 men to the English dead of perhaps as few as 500. The figures were so high for the French because Henry had ordered the execution of prisoners when a contingent of the enemy attacked the English baggage train in the rear and so the king feared the fighting might start anew. Amongst the fallen were most of the French nobility, including several dukes and counts, a situation which meant there was limited resistance to Henry’s next moves in terms of large field armies clashing. The king had, once again, led his troops from the front and won, even if he had received a heavy bash to his helmet (which now hangs over his tomb in Westminster Abbey). The Duke of Orleans was captured at Agincourt and he eventually found himself a prisoner in the Tower of London for the start of his 25 years of confinement in England.
King-to-be of France
Between 1417 and 1419 CE Henry conquered Normandy by persistent siege warfare of strategically important cities and fortifications. Caen, for example, was taken in 1417 CE after a siege where no quarter was given by either side. Henry forbade his men from plundering but, despite once hanging an archer for stealing a small box from a church, this was difficult to always enforce. The king famously captured Rouen, the Norman capital, in January 1419 CE after a siege where the king’s artillery batteries were used and a ruthless Henry ordered dead animals thrown into any wells which eventually caused so much disease in the town that it was forced to capitulate. Consequently, Normandy was now in Henry’s control and land was parcelled out to loyal followers.
At the end of 1419 CE Henry set his sights on Paris. Supporters of the Duke of Burgundy, after the duke’s father was murdered by a French rival, crucially gave their backing to Henry’s claim to be ruler of France as well as England. This arrangement was sealed in May 1420 CE with the Treaty of Troyes. According to this treaty, Henry would be made the king of France following the death of Charles VI. The new regime would be tied to the old via the marriage of the English king to Charles’ daughter Catherine of Valois (l. 1401 - c. 1437 CE). Finally, Henry had to promise he would continue fighting against the Burgundian's number one enemy: the now disinherited Dauphin Charles.
On 2 June 1420 CE in Troyes Cathedral, Henry V did indeed marry Catherine and the war was resumed against the Dauphin. Henry was at the peak of his powers, the most potent ruler in Western Europe. In 1421 CE, the royal couple returned to England where they were welcomed by a show of pageantry and choirs in the streets of London and Catherine had her coronation ceremony.
On 6 December 1421 CE at Windsor Castle Henry’s only child was born, another Henry. The wheel of fortune was already turning for the English king, though. In March 1421 CE, the English lost at the Battle of Baugé and Henry’s own brother, Thomas, Duke of Clarence was killed. Henry headed back to France to resume the war and so he never saw his son born or at any time thereafter. The king enjoyed one more success on 11 May 1422 CE, capturing Meaux after an eight-month siege. Henry’s career had been glittering, but it was also to be short.
Death & Successor
Henry died, probably of dysentery (although it may have been bowel cancer), aged 35, on 31 August 1422 CE at Bois de Vincennes in France. The English king had missed the chance to become the king of France by less than two months; Charles VI died on 21 October 1422 CE. Henry’s body was returned to England and buried at Westminster Abbey, and he was succeeded by his infant son, crowned Henry VI in November 1429 CE, again in Westminster Abbey. The infant’s regents had already been appointed by his father: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (l. 1390-1447 CE) for England and John, Duke of Bedford (l. 1389-1435 CE) for France, both were brothers of Henry V.
Henry VI’s reign turned out to be long, despite an interruption during the 1460s CE, but he could not stop a grand French revival which included the heroic efforts of Joan of Arc (c. 1412-1431 CE) and the crowning of the Dauphin as King Charles VII of France (r. 1422-1461 CE). Henry had continued to press a claim for the French throne, eventually being crowned as such in the cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris in December 1431 CE, although loyalists to Charles VII disputed his right to do so. Henry VI, who suffered from bouts of insanity, met a sticky end, murdered in the Tower of London in May 1471 CE as the two houses of Lancaster and York battled for the throne in what later became known as the Wars of the Roses (1455-1487 CE).
Henry V’s legacy might have crumbled quicker than he hoped, but he has at least gone down in history as one of England’s great kings, a view which benefitted greatly from his heroic treatment by William Shakespeare (1564-1616 CE) in his play Henry V (1599 CE), which contains the following stirring lines, spoken by Henry to his army just before the battle of Agincourt:
And Crispin Crispian shall ne’er go by
From this day to the ending of the world
But we in it shall be remembered,
We few, we happy few, we band of brothers.
For he today that sheds his blood with me
Shall be my brother; but he ne’er so vile,
This day shall gentle his condition.
And gentlemen in England now abed
Shall think themselves accursed they were not here,
And hold their manhoods cheap while any speaks
That fought with us upon Saint Crispin’s day.
(Act 4, Scene 3)"
Henry V of England
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Henry V Biography - The life of Henry V Documentary
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Thank you my friend SGT (Join to see) for making us aware that on April 9, 1413 Henry V was crowned King of England.
Henry V Biography - The life of Henry V Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HNjH-old6dY
Images:
1. April 9, 1413 Henry 5 coronation at Westminster Abbey, London [cropped]
2. Henry V married Catherine de Valois, daughter of Charles VI of France, at Troyes on 2 June 1420. Her coronation was held on Sunday, 23 February 1421 at Westminster Abbey
3. April 9, 1413 coronation of King Henry V at Westminster Abbey, London
4. King Henry V by Unknown artist, oil on panel, late 16th or early 17th century.
Background from {[http://kingscoronation.com/coronation-henry-v/]}
Coronation of Henry V
Henry V was the son of 20-year-old Henry of Bolingbroke (later Henry IV of England), and 16-year-old Mary de Bohun, grandson of the influential John of Gaunt and great-grandson of Edward III of England. The young Henry was knighted by his cousin, Richard II, during Richards Irish campaign. He was created prince of Wales at his father’s coronation in 1399. He was further given his grandfather, John of Gaunt’s title of Duke of Lancaster in November 1399.
After Henry IV died on 20 March 1413, Henry V succeeded him and was crowned on 9 April 1413 at Westminster Abbey, London, Kingdom of England. Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury conducted the ceremony, the same archbishop who had crowned the king’s father in 1399. At the time of the coronation there was a terrible snowstorm that swept across the country and the common people were undecided as to whether it was a good or bad omen. Some took it to be a sign of impending austerity, but others, saw it as a positive sign, the cold and snow would bring an end to difficult times and usher in a new era of hope and prosperity. To them this was the beginning of a spring.
Not a great deal is recorded of the coronation. It probably kept tradition. King Henry V arrived in London two days before the coronation on April 7th. He was met by a number of lords and knights as well as clergy and citizens in procession. Henry took up residence at the Tower. There he was met by fifty or so candidates for knighthood who waited upon him at table at a feast that evening. The next day they attended Mass, after which they rode in splendid array to the royal lodgings. Here they waited upon the King who dubbed them and as Knights of the Bath. The knights escorted Henry V through the city that day to Westminster in readiness for the coronation. There Henry V was received in procession and escorted to his palace to prepare in prayer for his anointing.
Henry’s relatively short procession from the Tower of London to Westminster Abbey was slow, as the attendants had to regularly stop to shake snow from the silken canopy they were holding over their new king’s head.
It is believed that the oil used to anoint the King was the same as that which had been used for his father. It was considered to have been delivered by the Virgin Mary to St Thomas Becket and carried back in its ampulla by Edward Prince of Wales, and treasured by his son King Richard II.
Apparently King Henry V dropped something on the floor during the coronation, and both he and those who were present had to search carefully to find it before it could be offered up.
The Coronation was held on Passion Sunday, so the banquet afterwards held in Westminster Hall was with a Lenten fare. All the dishes were of fish rather than meat.
He married Catherine de Valois, daughter of Charles VI of France, at Troyes on 2 June 1420. Her coronation was held on Sunday, 23 February 1421 at Westminster Abbey. Henry Chichele, Archbishop of Canterbury conducted her ceremony. Three months later, Henry returned to France to continue his military campaigns.'
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Henry V Biography - The life of Henry V Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HNjH-old6dY
Images:
1. April 9, 1413 Henry 5 coronation at Westminster Abbey, London [cropped]
2. Henry V married Catherine de Valois, daughter of Charles VI of France, at Troyes on 2 June 1420. Her coronation was held on Sunday, 23 February 1421 at Westminster Abbey
3. April 9, 1413 coronation of King Henry V at Westminster Abbey, London
4. King Henry V by Unknown artist, oil on panel, late 16th or early 17th century.
Background from {[http://kingscoronation.com/coronation-henry-v/]}
Coronation of Henry V
Henry V was the son of 20-year-old Henry of Bolingbroke (later Henry IV of England), and 16-year-old Mary de Bohun, grandson of the influential John of Gaunt and great-grandson of Edward III of England. The young Henry was knighted by his cousin, Richard II, during Richards Irish campaign. He was created prince of Wales at his father’s coronation in 1399. He was further given his grandfather, John of Gaunt’s title of Duke of Lancaster in November 1399.
After Henry IV died on 20 March 1413, Henry V succeeded him and was crowned on 9 April 1413 at Westminster Abbey, London, Kingdom of England. Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury conducted the ceremony, the same archbishop who had crowned the king’s father in 1399. At the time of the coronation there was a terrible snowstorm that swept across the country and the common people were undecided as to whether it was a good or bad omen. Some took it to be a sign of impending austerity, but others, saw it as a positive sign, the cold and snow would bring an end to difficult times and usher in a new era of hope and prosperity. To them this was the beginning of a spring.
Not a great deal is recorded of the coronation. It probably kept tradition. King Henry V arrived in London two days before the coronation on April 7th. He was met by a number of lords and knights as well as clergy and citizens in procession. Henry took up residence at the Tower. There he was met by fifty or so candidates for knighthood who waited upon him at table at a feast that evening. The next day they attended Mass, after which they rode in splendid array to the royal lodgings. Here they waited upon the King who dubbed them and as Knights of the Bath. The knights escorted Henry V through the city that day to Westminster in readiness for the coronation. There Henry V was received in procession and escorted to his palace to prepare in prayer for his anointing.
Henry’s relatively short procession from the Tower of London to Westminster Abbey was slow, as the attendants had to regularly stop to shake snow from the silken canopy they were holding over their new king’s head.
It is believed that the oil used to anoint the King was the same as that which had been used for his father. It was considered to have been delivered by the Virgin Mary to St Thomas Becket and carried back in its ampulla by Edward Prince of Wales, and treasured by his son King Richard II.
Apparently King Henry V dropped something on the floor during the coronation, and both he and those who were present had to search carefully to find it before it could be offered up.
The Coronation was held on Passion Sunday, so the banquet afterwards held in Westminster Hall was with a Lenten fare. All the dishes were of fish rather than meat.
He married Catherine de Valois, daughter of Charles VI of France, at Troyes on 2 June 1420. Her coronation was held on Sunday, 23 February 1421 at Westminster Abbey. Henry Chichele, Archbishop of Canterbury conducted her ceremony. Three months later, Henry returned to France to continue his military campaigns.'
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LTC Stephen F.
Great British Commanders: Henry V
Major Gordon Corrigan presents a profile of King Henry V, whose victory over the French at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 was the pinnacle of a military car...
Great British Commanders: Henry V
Major Gordon Corrigan presents a profile of King Henry V, whose victory over the French at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 was the pinnacle of a military career that began when he was just 16. In the clash British troops were outnumbered five to one, but devastated the enemy thanks to their superior training and the King's ruthless tactics.
The key to Henry's success as a military commander was that he put the English army on a professional footing. He defeated the Welsh and then the French, despite being totally outnumbered. He was the first English monarch who really understood how an army works.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k8O0tRjku94
Images:
1. 1403 young Henry narrowly escaped death when an arrow struck him in the head. Fortunately for him, the royal physician attended to his wounds over the next few days.
2. Henry V weds Catherine of Valois
3. King Henry V
4. Treaty of Troyes, 1420 CE by French National Archives
Background from {[https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofEngland/King-Henry-V/]}
King Henry V
by Jessica Brain
King Henry V, warrior king, shining example of medieval kingship and a living legend.
He was born in September 1386 in Wales at Monmouth Castle, the son of the future Henry IV of England and his wife Mary de Bohun. His lineage was impressive with notable ancestors such as John of Gaunt and Edward III. His cousin Richard II was the presiding monarch at the time of his birth and would have a notable impact on the young Henry as he took him under his wing.
Unfortunately for Richard, his reign was about to come to an abrupt end. His time as king had been plagued with difficulties including ongoing conflict with France, the Peasants’ Revolt and issues on the border with Scotland. In 1399 John of Gaunt, Richard II’s uncle who was also young Henry’s grandfather, passed away. In the meantime, Henry’s father known as Henry of Bolingbroke who had been living in exile, led an invasion in June that quickly escalated into a full-scale claim for the throne.
Henry of Bolingbroke found little difficulty in executing his mission; in no time at all, Richard found himself deposed, usurped by Henry who pronounced himself King Henry IV, leaving Richard to die in prison a year later. In this series of events, young Henry was now set to become heir to the throne of England. In November the same year, as his father’s coronation took place, Henry became known as Prince of Wales, a prominent and famous title that he would hold until his succession to the throne.
His royal title and privileges were not without contention, as the Prince of Wales was forced to engage in battle when the rebellion by Owen Glyndwr in Wales revolted against the English crown for nine years, eventually concluding in an English victory.
His adolescence was markedly impacted by battles and conflicts which erupted during his youth. His military might was tested not only with the Welsh rebellion but when faced with the powerful Percy family from Northumberland at the Battle of Shrewsbury. In 1403 the battle was in full swing, a conflict designed to defend his father’s interests as king against a rebel army led by Henry “Harry Hotspur” Percy.
Whilst the battle ensued, young Henry narrowly escaped death when an arrow struck him in the head. Fortunately for him, the royal physician attended to his wounds over the next few days, operating on him and eventually pulling the arrow out with minimal damage (treatment he would not have received had he not been heir to the throne). The miraculous recovery left the sixteen-year-old prince with a scar on his face as a permanent reminder of his military escapades; nevertheless, his taste for military life was not diminished despite his near death experience.
Henry’s appetite for military engagement was equally matched by his desire to involve himself in government. By 1410, his father’s ailing health allowed him to gain temporary control of proceedings for around eighteen months, in which time he implemented his own ideas and policies. Inevitably, upon his father’s recovery, all measures were reversed and the prince was dismissed from council, falling out with his father as he did so.
In 1413 King Henry IV passed away and his son assumed the throne and was crowned king on 9th April 1413 at Westminster Abbey amid treacherous blizzard conditions. The new king, King Henry V was described as imposing in stature with dark hair and a ruddy complexion.
He began work straight away, dealing first with domestic issues which from the outset he addressed as a ruler of a united nation, making clear to put past differences aside. As part of this plan he introduced the formal use of English in all government proceedings.
His domestic policy was generally successful and deterred any serious treats to his throne, including that of Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March. Whilst his domestic issues were dealt with, Henry V’s real threats and ambitions loomed from across the English Channel.
In 1415 Henry sailed to France, determined in his desire to lay claim to the French throne and regain lost lands from his ancestors. Strongly motivated as he was, he found himself embroiled in the Hundred Years’ War which had been escalating since 1337.
With much military experience under his belt, Henry made bold manoeuvres and won the siege at Harfleur, gaining the port in a strategic victory, an episode of history famously depicted in Shakespeare’s play ‘Henry V’. Unfortunately for him and his army, the English were struck down by dysentery long after the siege ended, leading to around one third of his men dying from the disease. This left Henry with greatly reduced numbers, forcing him to set out with his remaining men to Calais, hoping to evade the French as they made their way.
Unfortunately he had no such luck and was forced to engage in battle at Agincourt on 25th October 1415. It was the day of Saint Crispin, a feast day, when Henry led his diminished men against the imposing French army. The disparity in numbers was great, with the French estimated to have around 50,000 compared to England’s 5,000 men. The prospect of victory looked small for the English but Henry’s strategical experience was about to be their saving grace.
Major Gordon Corrigan presents a profile of King Henry V, whose victory over the French at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 was the pinnacle of a military career that began when he was just 16. In the clash British troops were outnumbered five to one, but devastated the enemy thanks to their superior training and the King's ruthless tactics.
The key to Henry's success as a military commander was that he put the English army on a professional footing. He defeated the Welsh and then the French, despite being totally outnumbered. He was the first English monarch who really understood how an army works.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k8O0tRjku94
Images:
1. 1403 young Henry narrowly escaped death when an arrow struck him in the head. Fortunately for him, the royal physician attended to his wounds over the next few days.
2. Henry V weds Catherine of Valois
3. King Henry V
4. Treaty of Troyes, 1420 CE by French National Archives
Background from {[https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofEngland/King-Henry-V/]}
King Henry V
by Jessica Brain
King Henry V, warrior king, shining example of medieval kingship and a living legend.
He was born in September 1386 in Wales at Monmouth Castle, the son of the future Henry IV of England and his wife Mary de Bohun. His lineage was impressive with notable ancestors such as John of Gaunt and Edward III. His cousin Richard II was the presiding monarch at the time of his birth and would have a notable impact on the young Henry as he took him under his wing.
Unfortunately for Richard, his reign was about to come to an abrupt end. His time as king had been plagued with difficulties including ongoing conflict with France, the Peasants’ Revolt and issues on the border with Scotland. In 1399 John of Gaunt, Richard II’s uncle who was also young Henry’s grandfather, passed away. In the meantime, Henry’s father known as Henry of Bolingbroke who had been living in exile, led an invasion in June that quickly escalated into a full-scale claim for the throne.
Henry of Bolingbroke found little difficulty in executing his mission; in no time at all, Richard found himself deposed, usurped by Henry who pronounced himself King Henry IV, leaving Richard to die in prison a year later. In this series of events, young Henry was now set to become heir to the throne of England. In November the same year, as his father’s coronation took place, Henry became known as Prince of Wales, a prominent and famous title that he would hold until his succession to the throne.
His royal title and privileges were not without contention, as the Prince of Wales was forced to engage in battle when the rebellion by Owen Glyndwr in Wales revolted against the English crown for nine years, eventually concluding in an English victory.
His adolescence was markedly impacted by battles and conflicts which erupted during his youth. His military might was tested not only with the Welsh rebellion but when faced with the powerful Percy family from Northumberland at the Battle of Shrewsbury. In 1403 the battle was in full swing, a conflict designed to defend his father’s interests as king against a rebel army led by Henry “Harry Hotspur” Percy.
Whilst the battle ensued, young Henry narrowly escaped death when an arrow struck him in the head. Fortunately for him, the royal physician attended to his wounds over the next few days, operating on him and eventually pulling the arrow out with minimal damage (treatment he would not have received had he not been heir to the throne). The miraculous recovery left the sixteen-year-old prince with a scar on his face as a permanent reminder of his military escapades; nevertheless, his taste for military life was not diminished despite his near death experience.
Henry’s appetite for military engagement was equally matched by his desire to involve himself in government. By 1410, his father’s ailing health allowed him to gain temporary control of proceedings for around eighteen months, in which time he implemented his own ideas and policies. Inevitably, upon his father’s recovery, all measures were reversed and the prince was dismissed from council, falling out with his father as he did so.
In 1413 King Henry IV passed away and his son assumed the throne and was crowned king on 9th April 1413 at Westminster Abbey amid treacherous blizzard conditions. The new king, King Henry V was described as imposing in stature with dark hair and a ruddy complexion.
He began work straight away, dealing first with domestic issues which from the outset he addressed as a ruler of a united nation, making clear to put past differences aside. As part of this plan he introduced the formal use of English in all government proceedings.
His domestic policy was generally successful and deterred any serious treats to his throne, including that of Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March. Whilst his domestic issues were dealt with, Henry V’s real threats and ambitions loomed from across the English Channel.
In 1415 Henry sailed to France, determined in his desire to lay claim to the French throne and regain lost lands from his ancestors. Strongly motivated as he was, he found himself embroiled in the Hundred Years’ War which had been escalating since 1337.
With much military experience under his belt, Henry made bold manoeuvres and won the siege at Harfleur, gaining the port in a strategic victory, an episode of history famously depicted in Shakespeare’s play ‘Henry V’. Unfortunately for him and his army, the English were struck down by dysentery long after the siege ended, leading to around one third of his men dying from the disease. This left Henry with greatly reduced numbers, forcing him to set out with his remaining men to Calais, hoping to evade the French as they made their way.
Unfortunately he had no such luck and was forced to engage in battle at Agincourt on 25th October 1415. It was the day of Saint Crispin, a feast day, when Henry led his diminished men against the imposing French army. The disparity in numbers was great, with the French estimated to have around 50,000 compared to England’s 5,000 men. The prospect of victory looked small for the English but Henry’s strategical experience was about to be their saving grace.
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LTC Stephen F.
LIVE: Henry V + Agincourt (feat: History Bro + Daughter of Albion)
OH MY LORD - So History Bro finally sorted out his tech issues and is going to come onto my channel and tell us all about one of the most famous battles in E...
LIVE: Henry V + Agincourt (feat: History Bro + Daughter of Albion)
https://youtu.be/6fVpiOXWKxA?t=947
Images:
1. King Henry V at Agincourt receives the French Herald
2. Henry V weds Catherine of Valois
3. Battle of Caen, from a MS. Froissart of the fifteenth century'
4. modern illustration of Henry V of England (r. 1413-1422 CE) fighting at the Battle of Agincourt against the French on 25 October 1415 CE
Background from {[https://www.thoughtco.com/henry-v-of-england-1221268}]
Henry V of England Bb Robert Wilde; Updated March 17, 2019
An icon of chivalry, a conquering hero, an exemplar of kingship and a supreme self-publicist, Henry V is among the triumvirate of the most famous English monarchs. Unlike Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, Henry V forged his legend in a little over nine years, but the long-term effects of his victories were few and many historians find something unpleasant in the arrogantly determined, albeit charismatic, young king. Even without Shakespeare's attention, Henry V would still be fascinating modern readers.
Birth and Early Life
The future Henry V was born Henry of Monmouth at Monmouth Castle into one of England's most powerful noble families. His parents were Henry Bolingbroke, Earl of Derby, a man who had once tried to curb the ambitions of his cousin, King Richard II, but now acted loyally, and Mary Bohun, heir to a rich chain of estates. His grandfather was John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, third son of Edward III, a staunch supporter of Richard II, and the most powerful English noble of the age.
At this point, Henry was not considered an heir to the throne and his birth was thus not recorded formally enough for a definitive date to have survived. Historians can't agree on whether Henry was born on August 9th or September 16th, in 1386 or 1387. The current leading biography, by Allmand, uses 1386; however, the introductory work by Dockray uses 1387.
Henry was the oldest of six children and he received the best upbringing an English noble could have, including training in martial skills, riding, and forms of hunting. He also received an education in music, harp, literature, and spoke three languages—Latin, French, and English—making him unusually highly educated. Some sources claim that the young Henry was sickly and 'puny' in childhood, but these descriptions didn’t follow him past puberty.
Tensions in Court
In 1397 Henry Bolingbroke reported treasonous comments made by the Duke of Norfolk; a court was convened but, as it was one Duke's word against another, trial by battle was arranged. It never took place. Instead, Richard II intervened in 1398 by exiling Bolingbroke for ten years and Norfolk for life. Subsequently, Henry of Monmouth found himself a "guest" at the royal court. While the word hostage was never used, there was underlying tension behind his presence and the implicit threat to Bolingbroke should he disobey. However, the childless Richard appeared to have a genuine fondness for young Henry and he knighted the boy.
Becoming the Heir
In 1399, Henry's grandfather, John of Gaunt, died. Bolingbroke should have inherited his father's estates but Richard II revoked them, kept them for himself and extended Bolingbroke's exile to life. By this time, Richard was already unpopular, seen as an ineffective and increasingly autocratic ruler but his treatment of Bolingbroke cost him the throne. If the most powerful English family could lose their land so arbitrarily and illegally; if the most loyal of all men is rewarded by his heir's disinheritance; what rights did other landowners have against this king?
Popular support swung to Bolingbroke, who returned to England where he was met by many who urged him to seize the throne from Richard. This task was completed with little opposition the same year. On October 13th, 1399, Henry Bolingbroke became Henry IV of England, and two days later Henry of Monmouth was accepted by Parliament as heir to the throne, Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall, and Earl of Chester. Two months later he was given the further titles Duke of Lancaster and Duke of Aquitaine.
Relationship with Richard II
Henry's rise to heir had been sudden and due to factors beyond his control, but his relationship with Richard II, especially during 1399, is unclear. Richard had taken Henry on an expedition to crush rebels in Ireland and, upon hearing of Bolingbroke's invasion, confronted Henry with the fact of his father's treason. The encounter, allegedly recorded by one chronicler, ends with Richard agreeing that Henry was innocent of his father's acts. Although he still imprisoned Henry in Ireland when he returned to fight Bolingbroke, Richard made no further threats against him.
Furthermore, sources suggest that when Henry was released, he traveled to see Richard rather than return directly to his father. Is it possible that Henry felt more loyalty to Richard—as a king or a father figure—than to Bolingbroke? Prince Henry agreed to Richard's imprisonment but it is unclear whether this and Henry IV's decision to have Richard murdered had any effect on later events, such as the younger Henry's impatience to usurp his father or his choice to rebury Richard with full regal honors in Westminster Abbey. We don't know for certain.
Experience in Battle
Henry V's reputation as a leader began forming in his 'teenage' years, as he and took on responsibilities in the government of the realm. One example of this is the Welsh uprising led by Owain Glyn Dŵr. When the small uprising swiftly grew into a full-scale rebellion against the English crown, Henry, as Prince of Wales, had a responsibility to help fight this treason. Consequently, Henry's household moved to Chester in 1400 with Henry Percy, nicknamed Hotspur, in charge of military affairs.
Hotspur was an experienced campaigner from whom the young prince was expected to learn. However, after several years of ineffective cross-border raiding, the Percys rebelled against Henry IV, culminating in the Battle of Shrewsbury on July 21st, 1403. The prince was wounded in the face by an arrow but refused to leave the fight. In the end, the king's army was victorious, Hotspur was killed, and the younger Henry famed throughout England for his courage.
Lessons Learned in Wales
Following the Battle of Shrewsbury, Henry's involvement in military strategy increased greatly and he began forcing a change in tactics, away from raids and into the control of land through strong points and garrisons. Any progress was initially hampered by a chronic lack of funding—at one point, Henry was paying for the entire war from his own estates. By 1407, fiscal reforms facilitated the sieging of Glyn Dŵr castles, which finally fell by the end of 1408. With the rebellion fatally, Wales was brought back under English control just two years later.
Henry's successes as king can be clearly tied to the lessons he learned in Wales, particularly the value of controlling strongpoints, approaches to dealing with the tedium and difficulties of besieging them, and the need for proper supply lines and a reliable source of adequate finances. He also experienced the exercise of royal power.
Involvement in Politics
From 1406 to 1411, Henry played an ever-increasing role in the King's Council, the body of men who ran the nation's administration. In 1410, Henry took overall command of the council; however, the opinions and policies Henry favored were often counter to those favored by his fater—particularly where France was concerned. In 1411, the king became so irked that he dismissed his son from the council altogether. Parliament, however, were impressed by both the prince's energetic rule and his attempts to reform government finances.
In 1412, the king organized an expedition to France led by Henry's brother, Prince Thomas. Henry—possibly still angry or sulking over his expulsion from the council—refused to go. The campaign was a failure and Henry was accused of staying in England to plot a coup against the king. Henry denied these accusations vigorously, obtaining a promise from Parliament to investigate and personally protesting his innocence to his father. Later in the year, more rumors emerged, this time claiming the Prince had stolen funds earmarked for a siege of Calais. After much protest, Henry was again found innocent.
Threat of Civil War and Ascension to the Throne
Henry IV had never secured universal support for his seizure of the crown from Richard and by the end of 1412, his family's supporters were drifting into armed and angry factions. Fortunately for the unity of England, people realized Henry IV was terminally ill before these factions were mobilized and efforts were made to obtain peace between father, son, and brother.
Henry IV died on March 20th, 1413, but if he had remained healthy, would his son have started an armed conflict to clear his name, or even seize the crown? It is impossible to know. Instead, Henry was proclaimed king on March 21st, 1413, and crowned as Henry V on April 9th.
Throughout 1412, the younger Henry seemed to have been acting with righteous confidence, even arrogance and was clearly chafing against the rule of his father, but legends claim that the wild prince turned into a pious and determined man overnight. There may not be much truth in those tales, but Henry probably did appear to change in character as he fully adopted the mantle of King. Finally able to direct his great energy into his chosen policies, Henry began acting with the dignity and authority he believed was his duty and his accession was broadly welcomed.
Early Reforms
For the first two years of his reign, Henry worked hard to reform and solidify his nation in preparation for war. The dire royal finances were given a thorough overhaul by streamlining and maximizing the existing system. The resulting gains weren't enough to fund a campaign overseas, but Parliament was grateful for the effort and Henry built on this to cultivate a strong working relationship with the Commons, resulting in generous grants of taxation from the people to fund a campaign in France.
Parliament was also impressed with Henry's drive to tackle the general lawlessness into which vast areas of England had sunk. The peripatetic courts worked much harder than in Henry IV's reign to tackle crime, reducing the number of armed bands and trying to solve the long-term disagreements which fomented local conflict. The chosen methods, however, reveal Henry's continued eye on France, for many 'criminals' were simply pardoned for their crimes in return for military service abroad. The emphasis was less on punishing crime than channeling that energy towards France.
Uniting the Nation
Perhaps the most important 'campaign' Henry undertook in this phase was to unite the nobles and common people of England behind him. He showed and practiced a willingness to forgive and pardon families who had opposed Henry IV, none more so than the Earl of March, the lord Richard II had designated as his heir. Henry freed March from imprisonment and returned the Earl's landed estates. In return, Henry expected absolute obedience and he moved quickly and decisively to stamp out any dissent. In 1415 the Earl of March informed on plans to put him on the throne which, in truth, were merely the grumblings of three disaffected lords who had already abandoned their ideas. Henry acted swiftly to execute the plotters and remove their opposition.
Henry also acted against the spreading belief in Lollardy, a pre-Protestant Christian movement, which many nobles felt was a threat to England's very society and which had previously had sympathizers at court. A commission was created to identify all Lollards and a Lollard-led rebellion was swiftly put down. Henry issued a general pardon to all those who surrendered and repented.
Through these acts, Henry made sure the nation saw him as acting decisively to crush both dissent and religious "deviance," underlining his position as England's leader and Christian protector while also binding the nation further around him.
Honoring Richard II
Henry had Richard II's body moved and reinterred with full regal honors in Westminster Cathedral. Possibly done out of fondness for the former king, the reburial was a political masterstroke. Henry IV, whose claim to the throne was legally and morally dubious, hadn't dared perform any act which gave legitimacy to the man he usurped. Henry V, on the other hand, demonstrated confidence in himself and his right to rule, as well as a respect for Richard which pleased any of the latter's remaining supporters. The codification of a rumor that Richard II once remarked how Henry would be king, most certainly done with Henry's approval, turned him into the heir of both Henry IV and Richard II.
Statebuilding
Henry actively encouraged the idea of England as a nation separate from others, most importantly when it came to language. When Henry, a tri-lingual king, ordered all government documents to be written in vernacular English (the language of the normal English peasant) it was the first time it had ever happened. The ruling classes of England had used Latin and French for centuries, but Henry encouraged a cross-class use of English that was markedly different from the continent. While the motive for most of Henry's reforms was configuring the nation to fight France, he also fulfilled almost all the criteria by which kings were to be judged: good justice, sound finance, true religion, political harmony, accepting counsel and nobility. Only one remained: success in war.
English kings had claimed parts of the European mainland ever since William, Duke of Normandy, won the throne in 1066, but the size and legitimacy of these holdings varied through struggles with the competing French crown. Not only did Henry consider it his legal right and duty to recover these lands, but he also believed honestly and utterly in his right to the rival throne, as first claimed by Edward III. At every stage of his French campaigns, Henry went to great lengths to be seen as acting legally and royally.
In France, King Charles VI was mad and the French nobility had split into two warring camps: the Armagnacs, formed around Charles' son, and the Burgundians, formed around John, Duke of Burgundy. Henry saw a way to take advantage of this situation. As a prince, he had supported the Burgundian faction, but as the king, he played the two against each other simply to claim he'd tried to negotiate. In June 1415, Henry broke talks off and on August 11 began what became known as the Agincourt Campaign.
Military Victories at Agincourt and Normandy
Henry's first target was the port of Harfleur, a French naval base and potential supply point for the English armies. It fell, but only after a protracted siege which saw Henry's army reduced in numbers and affected by illness. With winter approaching, Henry decided to march his force overland to Calais despite being opposed by his commanders. They felt the scheme was too risky, as a major French force was gathering to meet their weakened troops. At Agincourt on October 25th, an army of both French factions blocked the English and forced them to battle.
The French should have crushed the English, but a combination of deep mud, social convention, and French mistakes led to an overwhelming English victory. Henry completed his march to Calais, where he was greeted like a hero. In military terms, victory at Agincourt simply allowed Henry to escape catastrophe and deterred the French from further pitched battles, but politically the impact was enormous. The English further united around their conquering king, Henry became one of the most famous men in Europe and the French factions splintered again in shock.
Having obtained vague promises of help from John the Fearless in 1416, Henry returned to France in July 1417 with a clear objective: the conquest of Normandy. He maintained his army in France consistently for three years, methodically besieging towns and castles and installing new garrisons. By June 1419 Henry controlled the vast majority of Normandy. Admittedly, warring between the French factions meant little national opposition was organized but it was nonetheless a supreme achievement.
Equally notable are the tactics Henry used. This wasn't a plundering chevauchée as favored by previous English kings, but a determined attempt to bring Normandy under permanent control. Henry was acting as rightful king and allowing those who accepted him to keep their land. There was still brutality—he destroyed those who opposed him and grew increasingly violent—but he was far more controlled, magnanimous, and answerable to the law than before.
The War for France
On May 29th, 1418, while Henry and his forces advanced further into France, John the Fearless captured Paris, slaughtered the Armagnac garrison and took command of Charles VI and his court. Negotiations had continued between the three sides throughout this period, but the Armagnacs and Burgundians grew close again in the summer of 1419. A united France would have threatened Henry V's success, but even in the face of continued defeats at the hands of Henry, the French could not overcome their internal divisions. At a meeting of the Dauphin and John the Fearless on September 10th, 1419, John was assassinated. Reeling, the Burgundians reopened negotiations with Henry.
By Christmas, an agreement was in place and on 21st May 1420, the Treaty of Troyes signed. Charles VI remained King of France, but Henry became his heir, married his daughter Katherine and acted as de facto ruler of France. Charles' son, the Dauphin Charles, was barred from the throne and Henry's line would follow. On June 2nd, Henry married Katherine of Valois and on December 1st, 1420 he entered Paris. Unsurprisingly, the Armagnacs rejected the treaty.
Untimely Death
In early 1421, Henry returned to England, motivated by the need to acquire more funds and mollify Parliament. He spent the winter besieging Meaux, one of the Dauphin's last northern strongholds, before it fell in May 1422. During this time his only child, Henry, had been born, but the king had also fallen ill and had to be literally carried to the next siege. He died on August 31st, 1422 at Bois de Vincennes.
Successes and Legacy
Henry V perished at the height of his power, only a few months following Charles VI's death and his coronation as King of France. In his nine-year reign, he had demonstrated the ability to manage a nation through hard work and an eye for detail. He had shown a charisma which inspired soldiers and a balance of justice and forgiveness with reward and punishment that united a nation and provided the framework on which he based his strategies.
He had proved himself a planner and commander equal to the greatest of his era, keeping an army in the field constantly overseas for three years. While Henry had benefited greatly from the civil war being waged in France, his opportunism and ability to react enabled him to exploit the situation fully. Henry fulfilled every criterion demanded of a good king.
Weaknesses
It is entirely possible that Henry died just at the right time for his legend to remain, and that another nine years would have tarnished it greatly. The goodwill and support of the English people were definitely wavering by 1422 as the money was drying up and Parliament had mixed feelings towards Henry's seizure of the crown of France. The English people wanted a strong, successful king, but they were concerned about his level of interest in France and they certainly didn't want to pay for a prolonged conflict there.
Ultimately, history's view of Henry is colored by the Treaty of Troyes. On the one hand, Troyes established Henry as the heir to France. However, Henry's rival heir, the Dauphin retained strong support and rejected the treaty. Troyes thus committed Henry to a long and expensive war against a faction who still controlled roughly half of France, a war which might take decades before the treaty could be enforced and for which his resources were running out. The task of properly establishing the Lancastrians as dual kings of England and France was probably impossible, but many also consider the dynamic and determined Henry as one of the few people able to do it.
Henry's personality undermines his reputation. His confidence was part of an iron will and fanatical determination that hints at a cold, aloof character masked by the glow of victories. Henry seems to have focused on his rights and goals above those of his kingdom. As prince, Henry pushed for greater power and, as an ailing king, his last will made no provision for the care of the kingdom after his death. Instead, he spent his energies arranging twenty-thousand masses to be performed in his honor. At the time of his death, Henry had been growing more intolerant of enemies, ordering ever more savage reprisals and forms of war and may have been becoming increasingly autocratic.
Conclusion
Henry V of England was undoubtedly a gifted man and one of few to shape history to his design, but his self-belief and ability came at the expense of personality. He was one of the great military commanders of his age—acting from a genuine sense of right, not a cynical politician—but his ambition may have committed him to treaties beyond even his ability to enforce. Despite the achievements of his reign, including uniting the nation around him, creating peace between crown and parliament, and winning a throne, Henry left no long-term political or military legacy. The Valois reconquered France and retook the throne within forty years, while the Lancastrian line failed and England collapsed into civil war. What Henry did leave was a legend and a greatly enhanced national consciousness."
https://youtu.be/6fVpiOXWKxA?t=947
Images:
1. King Henry V at Agincourt receives the French Herald
2. Henry V weds Catherine of Valois
3. Battle of Caen, from a MS. Froissart of the fifteenth century'
4. modern illustration of Henry V of England (r. 1413-1422 CE) fighting at the Battle of Agincourt against the French on 25 October 1415 CE
Background from {[https://www.thoughtco.com/henry-v-of-england-1221268}]
Henry V of England Bb Robert Wilde; Updated March 17, 2019
An icon of chivalry, a conquering hero, an exemplar of kingship and a supreme self-publicist, Henry V is among the triumvirate of the most famous English monarchs. Unlike Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, Henry V forged his legend in a little over nine years, but the long-term effects of his victories were few and many historians find something unpleasant in the arrogantly determined, albeit charismatic, young king. Even without Shakespeare's attention, Henry V would still be fascinating modern readers.
Birth and Early Life
The future Henry V was born Henry of Monmouth at Monmouth Castle into one of England's most powerful noble families. His parents were Henry Bolingbroke, Earl of Derby, a man who had once tried to curb the ambitions of his cousin, King Richard II, but now acted loyally, and Mary Bohun, heir to a rich chain of estates. His grandfather was John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, third son of Edward III, a staunch supporter of Richard II, and the most powerful English noble of the age.
At this point, Henry was not considered an heir to the throne and his birth was thus not recorded formally enough for a definitive date to have survived. Historians can't agree on whether Henry was born on August 9th or September 16th, in 1386 or 1387. The current leading biography, by Allmand, uses 1386; however, the introductory work by Dockray uses 1387.
Henry was the oldest of six children and he received the best upbringing an English noble could have, including training in martial skills, riding, and forms of hunting. He also received an education in music, harp, literature, and spoke three languages—Latin, French, and English—making him unusually highly educated. Some sources claim that the young Henry was sickly and 'puny' in childhood, but these descriptions didn’t follow him past puberty.
Tensions in Court
In 1397 Henry Bolingbroke reported treasonous comments made by the Duke of Norfolk; a court was convened but, as it was one Duke's word against another, trial by battle was arranged. It never took place. Instead, Richard II intervened in 1398 by exiling Bolingbroke for ten years and Norfolk for life. Subsequently, Henry of Monmouth found himself a "guest" at the royal court. While the word hostage was never used, there was underlying tension behind his presence and the implicit threat to Bolingbroke should he disobey. However, the childless Richard appeared to have a genuine fondness for young Henry and he knighted the boy.
Becoming the Heir
In 1399, Henry's grandfather, John of Gaunt, died. Bolingbroke should have inherited his father's estates but Richard II revoked them, kept them for himself and extended Bolingbroke's exile to life. By this time, Richard was already unpopular, seen as an ineffective and increasingly autocratic ruler but his treatment of Bolingbroke cost him the throne. If the most powerful English family could lose their land so arbitrarily and illegally; if the most loyal of all men is rewarded by his heir's disinheritance; what rights did other landowners have against this king?
Popular support swung to Bolingbroke, who returned to England where he was met by many who urged him to seize the throne from Richard. This task was completed with little opposition the same year. On October 13th, 1399, Henry Bolingbroke became Henry IV of England, and two days later Henry of Monmouth was accepted by Parliament as heir to the throne, Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall, and Earl of Chester. Two months later he was given the further titles Duke of Lancaster and Duke of Aquitaine.
Relationship with Richard II
Henry's rise to heir had been sudden and due to factors beyond his control, but his relationship with Richard II, especially during 1399, is unclear. Richard had taken Henry on an expedition to crush rebels in Ireland and, upon hearing of Bolingbroke's invasion, confronted Henry with the fact of his father's treason. The encounter, allegedly recorded by one chronicler, ends with Richard agreeing that Henry was innocent of his father's acts. Although he still imprisoned Henry in Ireland when he returned to fight Bolingbroke, Richard made no further threats against him.
Furthermore, sources suggest that when Henry was released, he traveled to see Richard rather than return directly to his father. Is it possible that Henry felt more loyalty to Richard—as a king or a father figure—than to Bolingbroke? Prince Henry agreed to Richard's imprisonment but it is unclear whether this and Henry IV's decision to have Richard murdered had any effect on later events, such as the younger Henry's impatience to usurp his father or his choice to rebury Richard with full regal honors in Westminster Abbey. We don't know for certain.
Experience in Battle
Henry V's reputation as a leader began forming in his 'teenage' years, as he and took on responsibilities in the government of the realm. One example of this is the Welsh uprising led by Owain Glyn Dŵr. When the small uprising swiftly grew into a full-scale rebellion against the English crown, Henry, as Prince of Wales, had a responsibility to help fight this treason. Consequently, Henry's household moved to Chester in 1400 with Henry Percy, nicknamed Hotspur, in charge of military affairs.
Hotspur was an experienced campaigner from whom the young prince was expected to learn. However, after several years of ineffective cross-border raiding, the Percys rebelled against Henry IV, culminating in the Battle of Shrewsbury on July 21st, 1403. The prince was wounded in the face by an arrow but refused to leave the fight. In the end, the king's army was victorious, Hotspur was killed, and the younger Henry famed throughout England for his courage.
Lessons Learned in Wales
Following the Battle of Shrewsbury, Henry's involvement in military strategy increased greatly and he began forcing a change in tactics, away from raids and into the control of land through strong points and garrisons. Any progress was initially hampered by a chronic lack of funding—at one point, Henry was paying for the entire war from his own estates. By 1407, fiscal reforms facilitated the sieging of Glyn Dŵr castles, which finally fell by the end of 1408. With the rebellion fatally, Wales was brought back under English control just two years later.
Henry's successes as king can be clearly tied to the lessons he learned in Wales, particularly the value of controlling strongpoints, approaches to dealing with the tedium and difficulties of besieging them, and the need for proper supply lines and a reliable source of adequate finances. He also experienced the exercise of royal power.
Involvement in Politics
From 1406 to 1411, Henry played an ever-increasing role in the King's Council, the body of men who ran the nation's administration. In 1410, Henry took overall command of the council; however, the opinions and policies Henry favored were often counter to those favored by his fater—particularly where France was concerned. In 1411, the king became so irked that he dismissed his son from the council altogether. Parliament, however, were impressed by both the prince's energetic rule and his attempts to reform government finances.
In 1412, the king organized an expedition to France led by Henry's brother, Prince Thomas. Henry—possibly still angry or sulking over his expulsion from the council—refused to go. The campaign was a failure and Henry was accused of staying in England to plot a coup against the king. Henry denied these accusations vigorously, obtaining a promise from Parliament to investigate and personally protesting his innocence to his father. Later in the year, more rumors emerged, this time claiming the Prince had stolen funds earmarked for a siege of Calais. After much protest, Henry was again found innocent.
Threat of Civil War and Ascension to the Throne
Henry IV had never secured universal support for his seizure of the crown from Richard and by the end of 1412, his family's supporters were drifting into armed and angry factions. Fortunately for the unity of England, people realized Henry IV was terminally ill before these factions were mobilized and efforts were made to obtain peace between father, son, and brother.
Henry IV died on March 20th, 1413, but if he had remained healthy, would his son have started an armed conflict to clear his name, or even seize the crown? It is impossible to know. Instead, Henry was proclaimed king on March 21st, 1413, and crowned as Henry V on April 9th.
Throughout 1412, the younger Henry seemed to have been acting with righteous confidence, even arrogance and was clearly chafing against the rule of his father, but legends claim that the wild prince turned into a pious and determined man overnight. There may not be much truth in those tales, but Henry probably did appear to change in character as he fully adopted the mantle of King. Finally able to direct his great energy into his chosen policies, Henry began acting with the dignity and authority he believed was his duty and his accession was broadly welcomed.
Early Reforms
For the first two years of his reign, Henry worked hard to reform and solidify his nation in preparation for war. The dire royal finances were given a thorough overhaul by streamlining and maximizing the existing system. The resulting gains weren't enough to fund a campaign overseas, but Parliament was grateful for the effort and Henry built on this to cultivate a strong working relationship with the Commons, resulting in generous grants of taxation from the people to fund a campaign in France.
Parliament was also impressed with Henry's drive to tackle the general lawlessness into which vast areas of England had sunk. The peripatetic courts worked much harder than in Henry IV's reign to tackle crime, reducing the number of armed bands and trying to solve the long-term disagreements which fomented local conflict. The chosen methods, however, reveal Henry's continued eye on France, for many 'criminals' were simply pardoned for their crimes in return for military service abroad. The emphasis was less on punishing crime than channeling that energy towards France.
Uniting the Nation
Perhaps the most important 'campaign' Henry undertook in this phase was to unite the nobles and common people of England behind him. He showed and practiced a willingness to forgive and pardon families who had opposed Henry IV, none more so than the Earl of March, the lord Richard II had designated as his heir. Henry freed March from imprisonment and returned the Earl's landed estates. In return, Henry expected absolute obedience and he moved quickly and decisively to stamp out any dissent. In 1415 the Earl of March informed on plans to put him on the throne which, in truth, were merely the grumblings of three disaffected lords who had already abandoned their ideas. Henry acted swiftly to execute the plotters and remove their opposition.
Henry also acted against the spreading belief in Lollardy, a pre-Protestant Christian movement, which many nobles felt was a threat to England's very society and which had previously had sympathizers at court. A commission was created to identify all Lollards and a Lollard-led rebellion was swiftly put down. Henry issued a general pardon to all those who surrendered and repented.
Through these acts, Henry made sure the nation saw him as acting decisively to crush both dissent and religious "deviance," underlining his position as England's leader and Christian protector while also binding the nation further around him.
Honoring Richard II
Henry had Richard II's body moved and reinterred with full regal honors in Westminster Cathedral. Possibly done out of fondness for the former king, the reburial was a political masterstroke. Henry IV, whose claim to the throne was legally and morally dubious, hadn't dared perform any act which gave legitimacy to the man he usurped. Henry V, on the other hand, demonstrated confidence in himself and his right to rule, as well as a respect for Richard which pleased any of the latter's remaining supporters. The codification of a rumor that Richard II once remarked how Henry would be king, most certainly done with Henry's approval, turned him into the heir of both Henry IV and Richard II.
Statebuilding
Henry actively encouraged the idea of England as a nation separate from others, most importantly when it came to language. When Henry, a tri-lingual king, ordered all government documents to be written in vernacular English (the language of the normal English peasant) it was the first time it had ever happened. The ruling classes of England had used Latin and French for centuries, but Henry encouraged a cross-class use of English that was markedly different from the continent. While the motive for most of Henry's reforms was configuring the nation to fight France, he also fulfilled almost all the criteria by which kings were to be judged: good justice, sound finance, true religion, political harmony, accepting counsel and nobility. Only one remained: success in war.
English kings had claimed parts of the European mainland ever since William, Duke of Normandy, won the throne in 1066, but the size and legitimacy of these holdings varied through struggles with the competing French crown. Not only did Henry consider it his legal right and duty to recover these lands, but he also believed honestly and utterly in his right to the rival throne, as first claimed by Edward III. At every stage of his French campaigns, Henry went to great lengths to be seen as acting legally and royally.
In France, King Charles VI was mad and the French nobility had split into two warring camps: the Armagnacs, formed around Charles' son, and the Burgundians, formed around John, Duke of Burgundy. Henry saw a way to take advantage of this situation. As a prince, he had supported the Burgundian faction, but as the king, he played the two against each other simply to claim he'd tried to negotiate. In June 1415, Henry broke talks off and on August 11 began what became known as the Agincourt Campaign.
Military Victories at Agincourt and Normandy
Henry's first target was the port of Harfleur, a French naval base and potential supply point for the English armies. It fell, but only after a protracted siege which saw Henry's army reduced in numbers and affected by illness. With winter approaching, Henry decided to march his force overland to Calais despite being opposed by his commanders. They felt the scheme was too risky, as a major French force was gathering to meet their weakened troops. At Agincourt on October 25th, an army of both French factions blocked the English and forced them to battle.
The French should have crushed the English, but a combination of deep mud, social convention, and French mistakes led to an overwhelming English victory. Henry completed his march to Calais, where he was greeted like a hero. In military terms, victory at Agincourt simply allowed Henry to escape catastrophe and deterred the French from further pitched battles, but politically the impact was enormous. The English further united around their conquering king, Henry became one of the most famous men in Europe and the French factions splintered again in shock.
Having obtained vague promises of help from John the Fearless in 1416, Henry returned to France in July 1417 with a clear objective: the conquest of Normandy. He maintained his army in France consistently for three years, methodically besieging towns and castles and installing new garrisons. By June 1419 Henry controlled the vast majority of Normandy. Admittedly, warring between the French factions meant little national opposition was organized but it was nonetheless a supreme achievement.
Equally notable are the tactics Henry used. This wasn't a plundering chevauchée as favored by previous English kings, but a determined attempt to bring Normandy under permanent control. Henry was acting as rightful king and allowing those who accepted him to keep their land. There was still brutality—he destroyed those who opposed him and grew increasingly violent—but he was far more controlled, magnanimous, and answerable to the law than before.
The War for France
On May 29th, 1418, while Henry and his forces advanced further into France, John the Fearless captured Paris, slaughtered the Armagnac garrison and took command of Charles VI and his court. Negotiations had continued between the three sides throughout this period, but the Armagnacs and Burgundians grew close again in the summer of 1419. A united France would have threatened Henry V's success, but even in the face of continued defeats at the hands of Henry, the French could not overcome their internal divisions. At a meeting of the Dauphin and John the Fearless on September 10th, 1419, John was assassinated. Reeling, the Burgundians reopened negotiations with Henry.
By Christmas, an agreement was in place and on 21st May 1420, the Treaty of Troyes signed. Charles VI remained King of France, but Henry became his heir, married his daughter Katherine and acted as de facto ruler of France. Charles' son, the Dauphin Charles, was barred from the throne and Henry's line would follow. On June 2nd, Henry married Katherine of Valois and on December 1st, 1420 he entered Paris. Unsurprisingly, the Armagnacs rejected the treaty.
Untimely Death
In early 1421, Henry returned to England, motivated by the need to acquire more funds and mollify Parliament. He spent the winter besieging Meaux, one of the Dauphin's last northern strongholds, before it fell in May 1422. During this time his only child, Henry, had been born, but the king had also fallen ill and had to be literally carried to the next siege. He died on August 31st, 1422 at Bois de Vincennes.
Successes and Legacy
Henry V perished at the height of his power, only a few months following Charles VI's death and his coronation as King of France. In his nine-year reign, he had demonstrated the ability to manage a nation through hard work and an eye for detail. He had shown a charisma which inspired soldiers and a balance of justice and forgiveness with reward and punishment that united a nation and provided the framework on which he based his strategies.
He had proved himself a planner and commander equal to the greatest of his era, keeping an army in the field constantly overseas for three years. While Henry had benefited greatly from the civil war being waged in France, his opportunism and ability to react enabled him to exploit the situation fully. Henry fulfilled every criterion demanded of a good king.
Weaknesses
It is entirely possible that Henry died just at the right time for his legend to remain, and that another nine years would have tarnished it greatly. The goodwill and support of the English people were definitely wavering by 1422 as the money was drying up and Parliament had mixed feelings towards Henry's seizure of the crown of France. The English people wanted a strong, successful king, but they were concerned about his level of interest in France and they certainly didn't want to pay for a prolonged conflict there.
Ultimately, history's view of Henry is colored by the Treaty of Troyes. On the one hand, Troyes established Henry as the heir to France. However, Henry's rival heir, the Dauphin retained strong support and rejected the treaty. Troyes thus committed Henry to a long and expensive war against a faction who still controlled roughly half of France, a war which might take decades before the treaty could be enforced and for which his resources were running out. The task of properly establishing the Lancastrians as dual kings of England and France was probably impossible, but many also consider the dynamic and determined Henry as one of the few people able to do it.
Henry's personality undermines his reputation. His confidence was part of an iron will and fanatical determination that hints at a cold, aloof character masked by the glow of victories. Henry seems to have focused on his rights and goals above those of his kingdom. As prince, Henry pushed for greater power and, as an ailing king, his last will made no provision for the care of the kingdom after his death. Instead, he spent his energies arranging twenty-thousand masses to be performed in his honor. At the time of his death, Henry had been growing more intolerant of enemies, ordering ever more savage reprisals and forms of war and may have been becoming increasingly autocratic.
Conclusion
Henry V of England was undoubtedly a gifted man and one of few to shape history to his design, but his self-belief and ability came at the expense of personality. He was one of the great military commanders of his age—acting from a genuine sense of right, not a cynical politician—but his ambition may have committed him to treaties beyond even his ability to enforce. Despite the achievements of his reign, including uniting the nation around him, creating peace between crown and parliament, and winning a throne, Henry left no long-term political or military legacy. The Valois reconquered France and retook the throne within forty years, while the Lancastrian line failed and England collapsed into civil war. What Henry did leave was a legend and a greatly enhanced national consciousness."
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